The Dreyfus Affair was a political scandal that took place in France during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, centering around the wrongful conviction of a Jewish French army officer named Alfred Dreyfus for espionage. The affair exposed the deep divisions within French society over issues of nationalism, anti-Semitism, and the role of the military. In 1894, French military intelligence intercepted a letter from a German spy, which was found to have been written on a typewriter used by an army officer. Despite a lack of evidence, Dreyfus was accused of being the spy and was court-martialed in secret. He was found guilty and sentenced to life imprisonment on Devil's Island, a French penal colony in South America. Over the next few years, evidence began to emerge that suggested that Dreyfus was innocent and that the real spy was another French officer, Ferdinand Walsin Esterhazy. Despite this, the military refused to reopen the case and Dreyfus remained in prison. The affair became a cause célèbre, with supporters of Dreyfus and his innocence (known as Dreyfusards) clashing with his detractors, who were often anti-Semitic and nationalist. In 1898, writer Emile Zola published an open letter titled "J'Accuse" in a prominent Paris newspaper, accusing the military of a cover-up and demanding a retrial for Dreyfus. This led to a national scandal and a retrial was eventually granted. In 1906, Dreyfus was fully exonerated and reinstated into the army. The Dreyfus Affair had a lasting impact on French society and politics. It exposed the corruption and anti-Semitism within the military establishment and contributed to the growth of the French socialist movement. It also highlighted the power of the press to shape public opinion and influence political outcomes. The affair continues to be studied and debated by historians and political scientists as a significant moment in French history.

During the Vietnam War, the 101st Airborne Division of the United States Army had a bald eagle patch on their uniforms. The North Vietnamese Army referred to the 101st Airborne soldiers as "chicken men" because of this insignia. The reason for this nickname is that there are no eagles in Vietnam, so the Vietnamese soldiers did not recognize the bald eagle on the patch and mistook it for a chicken. This misunderstanding led to the nickname "chicken men" for the 101st Airborne soldiers.

Baldwin IV, also known as the Leper King, was born in 1161 and became the King of Jerusalem in 1174, reigning until his death in 1185. He was admired by his contemporaries and later historians for his willpower and dedication to the Latin kingdom despite suffering from debilitating leprosy, which eventually left him blind and unable to use either his hands or his feet. Baldwin IV was educated by William, archdeacon of Tyre, and was crowned at the age of 13, with Raymond III, count of Tripoli, acting as his regent until 1176. One of Baldwin IV's most notable achievements was his defeat of the Ayyubid Muslim ruler Saladin. In November 1177, the Battle of Montgisard took place, where the 16-year-old King Baldwin IV led an outnumbered Christian force against Saladin's army. Despite the odds, Baldwin's forces emerged victorious, capturing Saladin's huge supply train and inflicting heavy losses on the Muslim army. It is estimated that only a tenth of Saladin's invasion force made it back to Egypt. However, this was not the end of the conflict between Baldwin IV and Saladin. In 1179, Saladin defeated Baldwin in the Battle of Marj Ayyun, only to be defeated by Baldwin again at the Battle of Belvoir Castle in 1182. In 1180, Baldwin IV and Saladin signed a truce, which was later broken by Raynald of Chatillon in 1183. Baldwin IV's reign saw the growth of factionalism among the Latin nobility, which weakened the kingdom during the years when Saladin extended his influence from Egypt to Syria. In an attempt to keep the succession to the throne in his family, the childless Baldwin crowned his nephew King Baldwin V in November 1183. Baldwin IV died in March 1185 and is remembered as a courageous and determined ruler who successfully defended his kingdom against Saladin's forces.

Paul Emil von Lettow-Vorbeck, often referred to as the Lion of Africa, was a general in the Imperial German Army and the commander of its forces in the German East Africa campaign during World War I. Born into the Pomeranian minor nobility, he was educated in boarding schools in Berlin and joined the cadet corps at Potsdam and Berlin-Lichterfelde. He gained experience in bush fighting during the Herero and Hottentot rebellion (1904–07) in German South West Africa (now Namibia). When World War I broke out, Lettow-Vorbeck was appointed the military commander of German East Africa. Despite being outnumbered, he skillfully defended German East Africa with determination and courage. His troops consisted of never more than 3000 Germans and a larger number of local Askari soldiers. He repelled a British landing at Tanga (Tanzania) in November 1914. Throughout the war, he successfully ran a four-year guerrilla campaign against a much larger British force, inflicting many casualties and avoiding defeat. Lettow-Vorbeck's tactics were unconventional for the time. He used guerrilla warfare strategies, which were not common in regular forces at the time. His ability to evade a much larger Entente force and his successful invasion of British territory made him a celebrated figure in Germany. Lettow-Vorbeck's campaign in East Africa did not end with the armistice in Europe. He only surrendered 14 days after the end of the war in Europe, making him the last German commander to capitulate. Upon his return to Germany in January 1919, he was welcomed as a hero. His reputation as an undefeated war hero earned him many honors over the following years.

The War of Canudos (Guerra de Canudos) was a conflict between the First Brazilian Republic and the residents of Canudos in the northeastern state of Bahia from 1895 to 1898. The war took place in the aftermath of the abolition of slavery in Brazil (1888) and the overthrow of the monarchy (1889). The conflict arose from a millenarian religious revival led by Antônio Conselheiro, who began attracting attention around 1874 by preaching spiritual salvation to the poor. The war was fought between the military forces of the newly-formed Republic and the community of Belo Monte/Canudos, which was led by Antônio Conselheiro. The conflict involved four offensives carried out by the Brazilian army between 1896 and 1897, resulting in an estimated 30,000 deaths. The final offensive took place between October 1 and 5, 1897, when Canudos was set ablaze after an intense cannon bombardment. On October 2, around 600 councilors, mostly women, the elderly, and children, surrendered in exchange for a guarantee of life. The War of Canudos is considered the deadliest civil war in Brazilian history. The conflict was covered extensively by national and international journalists, including Euclides da Cunha, who later published the influential book "Os Sertões" in 1902, based on his experience as a war correspondent.

The Hawaiian flag is a combination of the British and American flags due to the historical relationships the Kingdom of Hawaii had with both nations. King Kamehameha I was given a British flag as a token of friendship from King George III in the late 18th century, and he flew it throughout his kingdom. However, during the War of 1812, an American flag was raised over Kamehameha's home to placate American interests. This flag was soon removed after British officers in Kamehameha's court opposed it. To resolve the issue, Kamehameha commissioned a new flag that incorporated elements of both nations. The Union Jack of the British Empire sits in the top left corner, while the body reflects the stripes of America's Old Glory. The flag's eight stripes represent the major islands of Hawaii. Historians credit its design to an officer of the Royal Navy, who based it on a British naval flag. The colors of the Hawaiian flag do not have any official symbolism, but they are speculated to have been influenced by the national symbols of other Pacific island kingdoms as well as the flags of the foreign powers that first visited Hawaii, including the United States, the United Kingdom, Russia, and France.

During the Eighty Years' War, the Dutch rebels led by William of Orange used the low-lying, flood-prone landscape to their advantage against the Spanish army. They deliberately destroyed seawalls at strategic places from 1584 to 1586 to cause large-scale floods. The main reason for this tactic was not that the Spanish couldn't swim, but rather to make it difficult for the Spanish army to navigate the flooded areas and to defend Dutch territory more effectively. The Dutch realized that flooding low-lying areas formed an excellent defense against enemy troops, as demonstrated during the Siege of Leiden in 1574. By flooding the land, they were able to hinder the movement of the Spanish army and protect key cities from being captured. This tactic had profound consequences for the landscape, with some areas remaining inundated for more than 100 years.

Ea-nasir was a Mesopotamian copper merchant who lived around 1750 BC. He was a member of the Alik Tilmun, a guild of merchants based in Dilmun, and was a prominent copper trader. The most famous information about Ea-nasir comes from a clay tablet known as the "Complaint Tablet to Ea-nasir," which is the oldest recorded customer complain. The tablet details that Ea-nasir traveled to Dilmun to buy copper and returned to sell it in Mesopotamia. On one particular occasion, he had agreed to sell copper ingots to Nanni. Nanni sent his servant with the money to complete the transaction. The copper was considered by Nanni to be sub-standard and was not accepted. In response, Nanni created the cuneiform letter for delivery to Ea-nasir. Inscribed on it is a complaint to Ea-nasir about a copper delivery of the incorrect grade and issues with another delivery; Nanni also complained that his servant (who handled the transaction) had been treated rudely. He stated that, at the time of writing, he had not accepted the copper, but had paid the money for it. Ea-nasir received multiple complaints from angry customers, including one from a man named Arbituram who sent a note to Ea-nasir complaining about why he hadn’t received the copper that he paid for.

The primary irrigation system in Mesopotamia involved a network of canals, which were dug into the nearby rivers. These canals consisted of a hierarchy of open surface gravity canals (main and distribution canals) and water-control structures such as regulators, flow dividers, and gate. The canals distributed river water to the fields, enabling the cultivation of crops like barley, wheat, lentils, peas, beans, and date palms. In addition to canals, Mesopotamian farmers used other techniques like shadufs, which were crane-like water lifts that have existed in the region since around 3000 BCE. They also practiced crop rotation and left fields fallow to maintain soil fertility. The irrigation systems also had some negative consequences. Over time, the constant use of irrigation led to the buildup of mineral salts in the soil, reducing its fertility. Farmers switched to more salt-tolerant grains like barley, but the harder they farmed, the less they harvested. After about 2,000 years, the once-fertile land of southern Mesopotamia became barren.

The Basque k***ings in Iceland occurred in the autumn of 1615. These tragic events led to the death of over thirty stranded Basque whalers. The Basques had been whaling off the coast of Iceland since the early 17th century, and their interactions with the locals were not always peaceful. In 1615, a storm destroyed three Basque whaling vessels, leaving around eighty crew members stranded in the Westfjords region of Iceland. The stranded Basques started robbing local farms for food, which led to conflicts with the locals. The Westfjords sheriff at the time, Ari Magnusson, issued a decree that allowed any Basque people found in the Westfjords to be legally k***ed on the spot. This resulted in the m****r of 32 Basque sailors in a series of raids led by the sheriff and local farmers. The law remained in place for centuries, although it was not enforced for a long time. In 2015, the Westfjords district commissioner, Jonas Gudmundsson, officially repealed the law, stating that the decision was more symbolic than anything else, as k***ing anyone, including Basques, was already forbidden by modern laws.

Poland did not completely escape the Black Death, but it was less affected compared to other European regions. The bubonic plague is believed to have spread to Poland in 1351. Several factors contributed to Poland's relative resistance to the plague: Geographic isolation - Poland was a landlocked country, largely surrounded by plague-infected areas, which may have limited the spread of the disease. Climate - Poland's temperate seasonal climate, which was colder than Southern and Western Europe, may have mitigated the spread of the plague. Quarantine measures - Some sources suggest that King Casimir the Great ordered a quarantine on Poland's borders, which could have helped to limit the spread of the disease. However, it is important to note that Poland did experience outbreaks of the plague, and the idea that it was completely spared is a myth.

The clothing worn by plague doctors was intended to protect them from airborne diseases during outbreaks of bubonic plague in Europe. The costume consisted of a leather hat, mask with glass eyes and a beak, stick to remove clothes of a plague victim, gloves, waxed linen robe, and boots. The mask had a long beak that extended about six inches from the face, and it had two eyeholes covered in glass and two nostril holes. The exact origins of the costume are unclear, as most depictions come from satirical writings and political cartoons. The costume was worn by a comparatively small number of late Renaissance and early modern physicians studying and treating plague patients. The doctors also carried long, wooden canes so they wouldn't have to touch patients. The costume was designed to protect the doctors from "bad air" and prevent contagion. Although the hat served a symbolic function, it has been speculated that it may have been filled with sweet or strong-smelling substances, such as lavender or rose petals, to counteract the stench of the plague. However, the costume did not provide complete protection against the disease, and many doctors still got sick by breathing through the nostril holes in their masks.

The Winthrop and Luella Kellogg Ape and the Child experiment was a comparative study of the development of a chimpanzee and a human child. The experiment involved raising a female chimpanzee named Gua and the Kellogg's son, Donald, as siblings in their home in Florida. The Kelloggs recorded the development of both the chimpanzee and the human child for nine months, comprehensively documenting their similarities and differences. Gua was brought into the Kellogg home at the age of 7.5 months, and for nine months, the Kelloggs raised the two as "brother and sister." Gua was dressed like an infant, in napkins and later in rompers, and was wheeled in a carriage, sat in a high chair, slept in a bed, and was kissed good night. The Kelloggs found that the chimpanzee was able to take on many human ways, such as wearing shoes and walking upright, eating with a spoon, drinking from a glass, and opening doors before the boy acquired those abilities. She imitated human gestures and ways of showing affection, like hugging and kissing Donald and the parents. However, the experiment ended abruptly when Donald began to copy Gua's sounds, and Gua could not speak. On March 28, 1932, nine months into the experiment, the Kelloggs officially ended it, and Gua was returned to the primate center with Robert Yerkes in Florida, where she was the subject of further studies by Yerkes' wife Ada.

The Lobster War, also known as the Lobster Operation, was a dispute over spiny lobsters that occurred between Brazil and France from 1961 to 1963. The conflict began when Brazil denied access to French fishermen within 100 miles of the Brazilian northeast coast, arguing that lobsters "crawl along the continental shelf" and therefore belonged to Brazil. The French, on the other hand, claimed that "lobsters swim" and thus could be caught by any fishing vessel from any country. Tensions escalated when Brazil's President João Goulart gave French forces 48 hours to withdraw, a deadline the French ignored. The situation peaked when the Brazilian navy apprehended the French vessel Cassiopée off the coast of Brazil. The Lobster War officially ended on December 10, 1964, after both Brazil and France signed an agreement. The conflict was resolved by Brazil expanding its territorial waters to a 200-mile zone, which encompassed the disputed lobster area. The agreement also allowed 26 French fishing boats to catch lobsters in the area over a period of five years. Although no shots were fired and no human casualties occurred, the scientific argument over the lobsters' movement continued until 1966.

General Order No. 11 was an order issued by Union General Ulysses S. Grant on December 17, 1862, during the American Civil War. The order expelled all Jews from Grant's military district, which included areas of Tennessee, Mississippi, and Kentucky. The order was issued following reports of illegal trading in the area, and Grant blamed Jews for the illegal trade. The order created a significant controversy both at the time and in subsequent years. Jewish leaders protested to President Abraham Lincoln, who quickly ordered the order to be rescinded. The incident sparked debate about anti-Semitism in the United States and the role of Jews in American society. Grant later expressed regret for issuing the order and apologized to the Jewish community. He acknowledged that the order was based on prejudice and that it was unfair and unjust. He also spoke out against anti-Semitism and supported the rights of Jews and other minorities. Despite the controversy surrounding the order, Grant went on to become one of the most respected and successful generals in the Civil War and later served as the 18th President of the United States.

Nomads are people who have no permanent abode and travel from place to place to find fresh pasture for their livestock. The Eurasian nomads were a large group of peoples from the Eurasian Steppe who domesticated the horse around 3500 BCE, vastly increasing the possibilities of nomadic life. Their economy and culture emphasized horse breeding, horse riding, and nomadic pastoralism. They traveled with their animals, which grazed along the way, and moved to new locations where the herbage had not yet been eaten down. They relied on horses for food in the summer months when ewes and cows stopped giving milk. Steppe nomads on the move ate and drank when they could, and often subsisted for weeks at a time on nothing but horse blood and mare's milk. Herders kept and trained fierce dogs to protect the herds from such predators.

In the 19th century, British Columbia was a British colony located on the western coast of North America. At that time, the Canadian Confederation was being formed, and the leaders of the colonies that would become Canada were interested in expanding their territory and creating a transcontinental nation. British Columbia was geographically isolated from the eastern provinces of Canada, and there was a growing concern about potential American expansionism in the region. The leaders in British Columbia recognized the benefits of joining Canada, as it would provide economic stability, security, and access to a larger market. Negotiations between British Columbia and the Canadian government took place, and one of the crucial factors discussed was the construction of a railway connecting the province to the rest of Canada. The Canadian government promised to build a transcontinental railway, known as the Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR), to link British Columbia with the eastern provinces. The completion of the railway had significant impacts on British Columbia's development. It facilitated trade and transportation, allowing for the movement of goods, people, and resources across the country. It also led to increased settlement and economic growth in the province.

Antoine Lavoisier, a renowned French chemist known for his significant contributions to the field of chemistry, including the discovery of hydrogen and the implementation of the metric system. He was executed on May 8, 1794, during the Reign of Terror following the French Revolution. He was found guilty of fraud and was one of 28 people executed at that time. Lavoisier's execution was a result of the radicalization of the French Revolution and the subsequent Reign of Terror. Despite his contributions to science and his efforts to advise the Revolutionary governments on finance and other matters, Lavoisier found himself imprisoned along with other members of the General Farm, a group of tax collectors. The Republic was purging itself of its royalist past, and Lavoisier, his father-in-law, and 26 other Tax Farmers were guillotined. Intriguingly, Lavoisier is also known for a peculiar experiment he conducted at the time of his execution. As a scientist, he was naturally curious about what happens to the human head once it was removed from the torso. Therefore, he promised that he would blink for as long as possible when he was beheaded. There were some reports that he blinked for up to 30 seconds, suggesting that the brain might continue to function even though it is no longer attached to the rest of the body. However, the validity of this experiment is disputed due to the circumstances of his execution, with some sources suggesting that there would have been no time to perform any such observation.

On August 2, 1943, during World War II, Lieutenant John F. Kennedy's patrol torpedo boat, PT-109, was rammed by the Japanese destroyer Amagiri in the South Pacific. The collision caused PT-109 to sink, and the crew was left stranded in the water. Kennedy managed to gather the survivors onto the wreckage of the boat, but by mid-afternoon, PT-109 began to sink, forcing the crew to swim towards a nearby island. The crew swam for about three and a half miles to reach a small island, hoping it was unoccupied. They stayed on this island for two days, surviving on coconuts, before deciding to swim to a larger, uninhabited island. On August 5, Kennedy and a crewmember encountered two Solomon Islanders, Eroni Kumana and Biuku Gasa, who initially thought they were Japanese and paddled away. However, they later met the rest of the stranded crew and agreed to help. Kennedy carved a distress message on a coconut husk and gave it to Kumana and Gasa, who paddled their canoe to an Australian coastwatcher, Reg Evans, stationed on a nearby island. Evans then coordinated the rescue of Kennedy and his crew. After the war, Kennedy kept the coconut husk as a memento and displayed it in the Oval Office during his presidency.

Genghis Khan and his successors were responsible for the deaths of an estimated 11% of the world's population during the 13th century, which amounts to around 37.75–60 million people in Eurasia. The Mongol conquests were characterized by widespread destruction and mass k***ings, making them some of the deadliest acts in human history. Genghis Khan adapted his method of warfare, moving from relying solely on cavalry to using sieges, catapults, ladders, and other equipment and techniques suitable for the capture and destruction of cities. The Mongols conquered numerous cities and villages, often causing significant demographic changes in Asia. For example, the Iranian historian Rashid al-Din reported that the Mongols k***ed more than 1,300,000 people in Merv and more than 1,747,000 in Nishapur. The total population of Persia may have dropped from 2,500,000 to 250,000 as a result of mass extermination and famine. The Mongol Empire's expansion was marked by swift and decisive attacks with an armed and disciplined cavalry. They often wiped out entire populations, leading to significant loss of life. In some cases, the Mongols sparked large migrations of displaced people and those fleeing future attacks.

Puyi, the last emperor of China, was dethroned during the Xinhai Revolution in 1912. After his abdication, he was allowed to live in the imperial palace until 1924, when he was forced into exile. He later worked with Japanese intelligence agencies in Tianjin and became the puppet emperor of the Japanese-controlled state of Manchukuo from 1934 to 1945. After World War II, Puyi was captured by the Soviets and spent five years in a Russian prison before being returned to Mao's China as a criminal implicated in wartime atrocities. Puyi underwent a process of "reeducation through labor" and was eventually pardoned in 1959. He then became a regular citizen of the People's Republic of China, working first as a gardener and later as a literary researcher. In the late 1950s, Puyi also worked as a street sweeper in Beijing.

Canada gained its independence gradually through a series of constitutional and legislative changes over the course of several decades. The country began as a British colony in 1763 after the Seven Years War, and over time, it developed a distinct cultural and political identity. The road to independence was a long one, and it was not until 1982 that Canada gained full control over its constitution. In 1867, Canada became a self-governing dominion within the British Empire, with a federal system of government modeled on the British parliamentary system. This gave Canada a significant degree of autonomy, including control over internal affairs and the power to negotiate its own treaties and alliances. However, Canada remained tied to Britain in matters of foreign policy, defense, and international trade. Throughout the 20th century, Canada gradually gained more control over its own affairs, including greater autonomy in foreign policy and defense. In 1931, the Statute of Westminster granted Canada full legal autonomy in domestic and foreign affairs, and in 1949, Canada became a member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) as an independent nation. The final step towards full independence came in 1982, with the adoption of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, which gave Canada complete control over its own constitution and legal system. Today, Canada is a fully independent nation with a unique identity that reflects its history, culture, and geography. It is a bilingual, multicultural country that is known for its commitment to human rights, democracy, and the rule of law.

The creation of French Canada, also known as New France, began in the early 16th century when France started exploring and colonizing North America. Jacques Cartier claimed the region for France in 1535 during his second voyage, in the name of King Francis I. However, the first permanent French settlement was established in 1608 by Samuel de Champlain, who founded Quebec City with 28 men. The French colonial enterprise was driven by economic exchanges with Indigenous peoples, religious motivations, and the desire to establish an effective colony in the St. Lawrence Valley. New France expanded over time to include areas such as the Maritime provinces, much of modern-day Ontario and Quebec, and the Hudson Bay region. The French settlers, who came from various regions in France, developed a distinct culture and were known as habitants. They interacted with Indigenous peoples, establishing trade relations and forming alliances. By the mid-18th century, New France had a profound cultural influence on the rest of Canada and the larger Francophone world. However, in 1763, following France's defeat in the French and Indian Wars, New France was ceded to Britain and became the British colony known as the Province of Quebec. Under British rule, French Canadians maintained their distinct cultural identity, aided by the influence of the Catholic Church, the tendency to marry within their own community, and the tradition of having large families. Today, French Canadians continue to preserve their heritage while embracing modern influences from both within and outside Canada.

The 1950 British Columbia B-36 crash occurred on February 14, 1950, when a Convair B-36B bomber (United States Air Force Serial Number 44-92075) assigned to the US 7th Bombardment Wing, Heavy at Carswell Air Force Base in Texas, crashed in northwestern British Columbia on Mount Kologet after jettisoning a Mark 4 nuclear bomb[3]. This was the first recorded loss of a nuclear weapon in history. The B-36B was en route from Eielson Air Force Base near Fairbanks, Alaska, to Carswell AFB, more than 3,000 miles southeast, on a mission that included a simulated nuclear attack on San Francisco. After six hours of flight, the aircraft developed serious mechanical difficulties, forcing the crew to shut down three engines. Icing conditions complicated the emergency, and level flight could not be maintained. The aircraft headed out over the Pacific Ocean and dropped the weapon from 8,000 feet. The crew then flew the aircraft over Princess Royal Island, where they bailed out. The wreckage was later found on Vancouver Island. Sixteen crewmen and one passenger parachuted safely and were rescued. The abandoned B-36 cruised for another 200 miles, veering from its set course, and crashed into the snowy flank of Mount Kologet, deep in the inland Canadian wilderness. In 1954, a small demolition crew reached the downed B-36 and proceeded to strip the plane of any classified equipment and destroy it.

The guillotine, a device designed for swift and efficient execution, holds a significant place in the history of France. Its origins can be traced back to the late 18th century when the French Revolution was underway. Driven by the desire for egalitarian justice and the rejection of methods seen as cruel and inhumane, the National Assembly tasked Dr. Joseph-Ignace Guillotin with developing a more humane method of execution. The guillotine, named after Guillotin, was introduced in 1792 and quickly became the primary method of capital punishment in France. The guillotine was a machine that consisted of a tall wooden frame with a sharp, weighted blade suspended at the top. The condemned person's head would be secured beneath the blade, and upon release, it would fall rapidly, severing the head from the body in a swift and supposedly painless manner. The use of the guillotine became associated with the Reign of Terror during the French Revolution, as thousands of individuals, including King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette, were executed by this method. The last use of the guillotine in France took place on September 10, 1977. The condemned person was Hamida Djandoubi, a Tunisian immigrant who was convicted of the torture and m****r of a young woman. The execution sparked significant controversy and debates over the use of the death penalty, ultimately leading to its abolition in France in 1981. Djandoubi's execution marked the end of a long history of guillotine usage in France, closing a chapter on a method that had come to symbolize both justice and the horrors of state-sanctioned violence.

Fritz Haber (1868-1934) was a German chemist and Nobel laureate best known for his significant contributions to the fields of chemistry and agriculture. Born in Breslau, Germany, Haber showed an early aptitude for science and pursued a career in chemistry. He obtained his doctorate in physical chemistry and later became a professor at the University of Karlsruhe. Haber's most notable achievements lie in two distinct areas. On one hand, he made groundbreaking advancements in agricultural chemistry. In 1909, Haber developed a method for synthesizing ammonia from atmospheric nitrogen and hydrogen gas, known as the Haber-Bosch process. This revolutionary technique enabled the large-scale production of ammonia, which became the foundation for the production of synthetic fertilizers. His invention revolutionized agriculture and had a profound impact on global food production, helping to sustain the growing population of the 20th century. However, Haber's legacy is also marked by a darker aspect. During World War I, he directed his scientific knowledge towards the development of chemical warfare. In 1915, he played a key role in the creation of mustard gas, a highly toxic chemical weapon.